Российское респираторное общество (РРО)
Общероссийская общественная организация
"Федерация анестезиологов и реаниматологов" (ФАР)
Российская ассоциация специалистов по хирургическим инфекциям (РАСХИ)
Межрегиональная ассоциация по клинической микробиологии
и антимикробной химиотерапии (МАКМАХ)
Альянс клинических химиотерапевтов и микробиологов
Российское общество патологоанатомов

Список сокращений: [показать]

Содержание

• Введение
• Определение и классификация
• Эпидемиология
• Факторы риска
• Патогенез и клинико-диагностические критерии
• Этиология и чувствительность возбудителей
• Антимикробная терапия
• Неантимикробная терапия
• Профилактика
• Патологическая анатомия
• Библиография

1. Чучалин А.Г., Синопальников А.И., Страчунский Л.С. и др., Нозокомиальная пневмония у взрослых: практические рекомендации по диагностике, лечению и профилактике. Пособие для врачей. Пульмонология, 2005. N 3: c. 13-36.
2. Гельфанд Б.Р., Белоцерковский Б.З., Проценко Д.Н. и др., Нозокомиальная пневмония в хирургии. Методические рекомендации. Инфекции и антимикробная терапия, 2003. N 5-6: c.124-129.
3. Bellomo R. and Bagshaw S.M., Evidence-based medicine: classifying the evidence from clinical trials — the need to consider other dimensions. Crit Care, 2006. 10 (5): p. 232.
4. Hospital-acquired pneumonia in adults: diagnosis, assessment of severity, initial antimicrobial therapy, and preventive strategies. A consensus statement, American Thoracic Society, November 1995. Am J Respir Crit CareMed, 1996. 153 (5): p. 1711-25.
5. Guidelines for the management of adults with hospital-acquired, ventilator-associated, and healthcare-associated pneumonia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 2005. 171 (4): p.388-416.
6. Kirtland S.H., Corlev D.E., Winterbauer R.H. et al., The diagnosis of ventilator-associated pneumonia: a comparison of histologic, microbiologic, and clinical criteria. Chest, 1997. 112 (2): p.445-57.
7. Fagon J.Y., Chastre J., Domart Y. et al., Nosocomial pneumonia in patients receiving continuous mechanical ventilation. Prospective analysis of 52 episodes with use of a protected specimen brush and quantitative culture techniques. Am Rev Respir Dis, 1989. Apr; 139 (4): p. 877-84.
8. Montravers P., Veber B., Aubover C. et al., Diagnostic and therapeutic management of nosocomial pneumonia in surgical patients: results of the Eole study. Crit Care Med, 2002. Feb; 30 (2): p. 368-75.
9. Rello J., Ausina V., Ricart M. et al., Impact of previous antimicrobial therapy on the etiology and outcome of ventilator-associated pneumonia. Chest, 1993. Oct; 104 (4): p. 1230-5.
10. Trouillet J.L., Chastre J., Vuagnat A. et al., Ventilator-associated pneumonia caused by potentially drug-resistant bacteria. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 1998. Feb; 157 (2): p.531-9.
11. Celis R., Torres A., Gatell J.M. et al., Nosocomial pneumonia. A multivariate analysis of risk and prognosis. Chest,
12. Feb; 93 (2): p. 318-24.
13. Kollef M.H., Silver P., Murphy D.M. et al., The effect of late-onset ventilator-associated pneumonia in determining patient mortality. Chest, 1995. 108 (6): p. 1655-62.
14. Bregeon F., Ciais V., Carret V. et al., Is ventilator-associated pneumonia an independent risk factor for death? Anesthesiology, 2001. Apr; 94 (4): p. 554-60.
15. Rello J., Sa-Bores M., Correa H. et al., Variations in etiology of ventilator-associated pneumonia across four treatment sites: implications for antimicrobial prescribing practices. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 1999. Apr; 160 (2): p. 608-13.
16. Эпидемиологическое наблюдение: принципы организации и методы проведения / Подред. Л.П. Зуевой. Методические рекомендации. СПб., 2004: с. 19.
17. Белобородов В.Б., Современный взгляд на лечение и профилактику инфекций в ОРИТ. М., 2005.
18. Alberti C., Brun-Buisson C., Burchardi H. et al., Epidemiology of sepsis and infection in ICU patients from an international multicentre cohort study. Intensive Care Med, 2002. Feb; 28 (2): p.108-21.
19. Климова Г.М., Клюжев В.М., Акимкин В.Г., Карпун Н.А. и др., Эпидемиология и профилактика септических инфекционных осложнений у больных отделений реанимации и интенсивной терапии хирургического профиля. Эпидемиология и вакцинопрофилактика, 2006. N 3 (28): с. 33-37.
20. Gastmeier P., Geffers C., Sohr D. et al., Five years working with the German nosocomial infection surveillance system (Krankenhaus Infections Surveillance System). Am J Infect Control, 2003. Aug; 31 (5): p. 316-21.
21. Morehead R.S. and Pinto S.J., Ventilator-associated pneumonia. Arch Intern Med, 2000. Jul 10; 160 (13): p.1926-36.
22. RichardJ., Conti G., BoucherieM. et al., VAPWAY project: A European audit of VAP prevention practices. Intensive Care Med, 2008. 34 (Suppl 1): p. 36.
23. Dodek P., Keenan S., Cook D. et al., Evidence-based clinical practice guideline for the prevention of ventilator-associated pneumonia. Ann Intern Med, 2004. Aug 17; 141 (4): p. 305-13.
24. Richards M.J., Edwards J.R., Culver D.H. et al., Nosocomial infections in combined medical-surgical intensive care units in the United States. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol, 2000. Aug; 21 (8): p.510-5.
25. Vincent J.L., Bihari D.J., Suter P.M. et al., The prevalence of nosocomial infection in intensive care units in Europe. Results of the European Prevalence of Infection in Intensive Care (EPIC) Study. EPIC International Advisory Committee. JAMA, 1995. Aug 23-10; 274 (8): p. 639-44.
26. Vincent J.L., European Prevalence of Infection in Intensive Care. EPIC II study. 28th ISICEM, 2008.
27. Baker A.M., Meredith J.W., Haponik E.F., Pneumonia in intubated trauma patients. Microbiology and outcomes. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 1996. Jan; 153 (1): p.343-9.
28. Craig C.P. and Conelly S., Effect of intensive care unit nosocomial pneumonia on duration of stay and mortality. Am J Infect Control, 1984. 12 (4): p. 233-8.
29. Cunnion K.M., Weber D.J., Broadhead W.E. et al., Risk factors for nosocomial pneumonia: comparing adult critical-care populations. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 1996. Jan; 153 (1): p.158-62.
30. Cook D.J. and Kollef M.H., Risk factors for ICU-acquired pneumonia. JAMA, 1998. 279 (20): p.1605-6.
31. Soo Hoo G.W., Wen E., Nguyen T.V. et al., Impact of clinical guidelines in the management of severe hospital- acquired pneumonia. Chest, 2005. 128 (4): p. 2778-87.
32. Craven D.E., Epidemiology of ventilator-associated pneumonia. Chest, 2000. Apr; 117 (4Suppl2): p.186S-187S.
33. Craven D.E. and Steger K.A., Epidemiology of nosocomial pneumonia. New perspectives on an old disease. Chest, 1995. 108 (2 Suppl): p. 1S-16S.
34. Papazian L., Bregeon F., Thirion X. et al., Effect of ventilator-associated pneumonia on mortality and morbidity. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 1996. Jul; 154 (1): p. 91-7.
35. Heyland D.K., Cook D.J., Grifith L. et al., The attributable morbidity and mortality of ventilator-associated pneumonia in the critically ill patient. The Canadian Critical Trials Group. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 1999. Apr; 159 (4 Pt 1): p. 1249-56.
36. Bercault N. and Boulain T., Mortality rate attributable to ventilator-associated nosocomial pneumonia in an adult intensive care unit: a prospective case-control study. Crit Care Med, 2001. Dec; 29 (12): p. 2303-9.
37. Rello J., Lorente C., Bodi M. et al., Why do physicians not follow evidence-based guidelines for preventing ventilator-associated pneumonia: a survey based on the opinions of an international panel of intensivists. Chest, Aug; 122 (2): p. 656-61.
38. Гельфанд Б.Р., Гологорский В.А., Белоцерковский Б.З. и др., Нозокомиальная пневмония, связанная с искусственной вентиляцией лёгких (НПивл), у хирургических больных. М., 2000: 43 с.
39. Hunter J., Annadurai S. and Rothwell M., Diagnosis, management and prevention of ventilator-associated pneumonia in the UK. Eur J Anaesthesiol, 2007. 24 (11): p. 971-7.
40. Kollef M.H., The prevention of ventilator-associated pneumonia. N Engl J Med, 1999. 340 (8): p.627-34.
41. Shorr A.F. and Kollef M.H., Ventilator-associated pneumonia: insights from recent clinical trials. Chest, 2005. (5 Suppl 2): p. 583S-591S.
42. Chastre J. and Fagon J.Y., Ventilator-associated pneumonia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 2002. 165 (7): p. 867-903.
43. A randomized trial of diagnostic techniques for ventilator-associated pneumonia. N Engl J Med, 2006. 355 (25): p. 2619-30.
44. Chinsky K.D., Ventilator-associated pneumonia: is there any gold in these standards? Chest, 2002. 122 (6): p.1883-5.
45. Fagon J.Y., Chastre J., Hance A.J. et al., Nosocomial pneumonia in ventilated patients: a cohort study evaluating attributable mortality and hospital stay. Am J Med, 1993. Mar; 94 (3): p.281-8.
46. Masterton R.G., Galloway A., French G. et al., Guidelines for the management of hospital-acquired pneumonia in the UK: report of the working party on hospital-acquired pneumonia of the British Society for Antimicrobial Chemotherapy. J Antimicrob Chemother, 2008. Jul; 62 (1): p. 5-34.
47. Public health focus: surveillance, prevention, and control of nosocomial infections. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep, 1992. 41 (42): p. 783-7.
48. Torres A., Ewig S., Lode H. et al., Defining, treating and preventing hospital acquired pneumonia: European perspective. Intensive Care Med, 2009. 35 (1): p. 9-29.
49. Sirvent J.M., Torres A., Vidour L. et al., Tracheal colonisation within 24 h of intubation in patients with head trauma: risk factor for developing early-onset ventilator-associated pneumonia. Intensive Care Med, 2000. 26 (9): p. 1369-72.
50. Drakulovic M.B., Torres A., Bauer T. et al., Supine body position as a risk factor for nosocomial pneumonia in mechanically ventilated patients: a randomised trial. Lancet, 1999. Nov 27; 354 (9193): p. 1851-8.
51. Ibrahim E.H., Mehringer L., Prentice D. et al., Early versus late enteral feeding of mechanically ventilated patients: results of a clinical trial. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr, 2002. May-Jun; 26 (3): p. 174-81.
52. Craven D.E. and Driks M.R., Nosocomial pneumonia in the intubated patient. Semin Respir Infect, 1987. 2 (1): p. 20-33.
53. Craven D.E., Kunches L.M., Kilinsky V. et al., Risk factors for pneumonia and fatality in patients receiving continuous mechanical ventilation. Am Rev Respir Dis, 1986. May; 133 (5): p. 792-6.
54. Winterbauer R.H., Durning R.B., Barron E. et al., Aspirated nasogastric feeding solution detected by glucose strips. Ann Intern Med, 1981. Jul; 95 (1): p. 67-8.
55. Holzapfel L., Chervet S., Madinier G. et al., Influence of long-term oro- or nasotracheal intubation on nosocomial maxillary sinusitis and pneumonia: results of a prospective, randomized, clinical trial. Crit Care Med, 1993. Aug; 21 (8): p. 1132-8.
56. Adair C.G., Gorman S.P., Feron B.M. et al., Implications of endotracheal tube biofilm for ventilator-associated pneumonia. Intensive Care Med, 1999. Oct; 25 (10): p. 1072-6.
57. Pingleton S.K., Hinthorn D.R. and Liu C., Enteral nutrition in patients receiving mechanical ventilation. Multiple sources of tracheal colonization include the stomach. Am J Med, 1986. 80 (5): p. 827-32.
58. Torres A., Serra-Batlles J., Ros E. et al., Pulmonary aspiration of gastric contents in patients receiving mechanical ventilation: the effect of body position. Ann Intern Med, 1992. Apr 1; 116 (7): p. 540-3.
59. Pugin J., Auckenthaler R., Mili N. et al., Diagnosis of ventilator-associated pneumonia by bacteriologic analysis of bronchoscopic and nonbronchoscopic "blind" bronchoalveolar lavage fluid. Am Rev Respir Dis, 1991. May; (5 Pt 1): p. 1121-9.
60. Luna C.M., Balnzaco D., Niederman M.S. et al., Resolution of ventilator-associated pneumonia: prospective evaluation of the clinical pulmonary infection score as an early clinical predictor of outcome. Crit Care Med, Mar; 31 (3): p. 676-82.
61. Chastre J., Wolff M., Fagon J.Y. et al., Comparison of 8 vs 15 days of antibiotic therapy for ventilator-associated pneumonia in adults: a randomized trial. JAMA, 2003. Nov 19; 290 (19): p.2588-98.
62. Samama M.M., Cohen A.T., Darmon J.Y. et al., A comparison of enoxaparin with placebo for the prevention of venous thromboembolism in acutely ill medical patients. Prophylaxis in Medical Patients with Enoxaparin Study Group. N Engl J Med, 1999. Sep; 341 (11): p. 793-800.
63. Geerts W. and Selby R., Prevention of venous thromboembolism in the ICU. Chest, 2003. 124 (6 Suppl): p. 357S-363S.
64. Attia J., Rav J.G., Cook D.J. et al., Deep vein thrombosis and its prevention in critically ill adults. Arch Intern Med, May 28; 161 (10): p. 1268-79.
65. Colwell C.W., Jr., Recent advances in the use of low molecular weight heparins as prophylaxis for deep vein thrombosis. Orthopedics, 1994. Jul; 17 Suppl: p. 5-7.
66. Geerts W.H., Jay R.M., Code K.I. et al., A comparison of low-dose heparin with low-molecular-weight heparin as prophylaxis against venous thromboembolism after major trauma. N Engl J Med, 1996. Sep; 335 (10): p. 701-7.
67. Vanek V.W., Meta-analysis of effectiveness of intermittent pneumatic compression devices with a comparison of thigh-high to knee-high sleeves. Am Surg, 1998. Nov; 64 (11): p. 1050-8.
68. Hamilton G. and Baker D., Graduated compression stockings in the prevention of venous thromboembolism. Br J Surg, 1999. 86 (8): p. 992-1004.
69. Cook D.J., Witt L.G., Cook R.J. et al., Stress ulcer prophylaxis in the critically ill: a meta-analysis. Am J Med, 1991. Nov; 91 (5): p. 519-27.
70. Levy M.J., Seelig C.D., Robinson N.J. et al., Comparison of omeprazole and ranitidine for stress ulcer prophylaxis. Dig Dis Sci, 1997. Jun; 42 (6): p. 1255-9.
71. Conrad S.A., Gabrielli A., Margolis B. et al., Randomized, double-blind comparison of immediate-release omeprazole oral suspension versus intravenous cimetidine for the prevention of upper gastrointestinal bleeding in critically ill patients. Crit Care Med, 2005. Apr; 33 (4): p.760-5.
72. Kahn J.M., Doctor J.N. and Rubenfeld G.D., Stress ulcer prophylaxis in mechanically ventilated patients: integrating evidence and judgment using a decision analysis. Intensive Care Med, 2006. 32 (8): p. 1151-8.
73. Turgeon A.F., Hutton B., Fergusson D.A. et al., Meta-analysis: intravenous immunoglobulin in critically ill adult patients with sepsis. Ann Intern Med, 2007. Feb 6; 146 (3): p. 193-203.
74. Laupland K.B., Kirkpatrick A.W. and Delaney D., Polyclonal intravenous immunoglobulin for the treatment of severe sepsis and septic shock in critically ill adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Crit Care Med, 2007.
75. Kreymann K.G., de Heer G., Nierhaus A. et al., Use of polyclonal immunoglobulins as adjunctive therapy for sepsis or septic shock. Crit Care Med, 2007. Dec; 35 (12): p. 2677-85.
76. Colin G. and Annane D., Corticosteroids and human recombinant activated protein C for septic shock. Clin Chest Med, 2008. 29 (4): p. 705-12.
77. Patterson T.F., Patterson J.E., Masecar B.L. et al., A nosocomial outbreak of Branhamella catarrhalis confirmed by restriction endonuclease analysis. J Infect Dis, 1988. May; 157 (5): p.996-1001.
78. Brochard L., Mancebo J., Wysocki M. et al., Noninvasive ventilation for acute exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. N Engl J Med, 1995. Sep; 333 (13): p. 817-22.
79. Ferrer M., Esquinas A., Leon M. et al., Noninvasive ventilation in severe hypoxemic respiratory failure: a randomized clinical trial. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 2003. Dec 15; 168 (12): p. 1438-44.
80. Confalonieri M., Corini M., Ambrosino N. et al., Respiratory intensive care units in Italy: a national census and prospective cohort study. Thorax, 2001. May; 56 (5): p. 373-8.
81. Ferrer M., Esquinas A., Arancibia F. et al., Noninvasive ventilation during persistent weaning failure: a randomized controlled trial. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 2003. Jul; 168 (1): p. 70-6.
82. Antonelli M., Conti G., Moro M.L. et al., Predictors of failure of noninvasive positive pressure ventilation in patients with acute hypoxemic respiratory failure: a multi-center study. Intensive Care Med, 2001. Nov; 27 (11): p. 1718-28.
83. Wheeler A.P., Carroll F.E. and Bernard G.R., Radiographic issues in adult respiratory distress syndrome. New Horiz, 1993. 1 (4): p. 471-7.
84. Malbouisson L.M., Busch C.J., Puybasset L. et al., Role of the heart in the loss of aeration characterizing lower lobes in acute respiratory distress syndrome. CT Scan ARDS Study Group. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 2000. Jun; (6): p. 2005-12.
85. Malbouisson L.M., Muller J.C., Constantin J.M. et al., Computed tomography assessment of positive end-expiratory pressure-induced alveolar recruitment in patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 2001. May; 163 (6): p. 1444-50.
86. Mancebo J., Permissive hypercapnia in ARDS. Intensive Care Med, 1998. 24 (12): p. 1339-40.
87. Lodato R.F., Oxygen toxicity. Crit Care Clin, 1990. 6 (3): p. 749-65.
88. Amato M.B., Barbas C.S., Medeiros D.M. et al., Beneficial effects of the "open lung approach" with low dis- tending pressures in acute respiratory distress syndrome. A prospective randomized study on mechanical ventilation. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 1995. Dec; 152 (6 Pt 1): p.1835-46.
89. Mancebo J., Amaro P., Mollo J.L. et al., Comparison of the effects of pressure support ventilation delivered by three different ventilators during weaning from mechanical ventilation. Intensive Care Med, 1995. Nov; 21 (11): p. 913-9.
90. Brochard L., Roudot-Thoraval F., Roupie E. et al., Tidal volume reduction for prevention of ventilator-induced lung injury in acute respiratory distress syndrome. The Multicenter Trail Group on Tidal Volume reduction in ARDS. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 1998. Dec; 158 (6): p. 1831-8.
91. Ranieri V.M., Mascia L., Fiore T. et al., Cardiorespiratory effects of positive end-expiratory pressure during progressive tidal volume reduction (permissive hypercapnia) in patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome. Anesthesiology, 1995. Oct; 83 (4): p. 710-20.
92. Eichacker P.Q., Gerstenberger E.P., Banks S.M. et al., Meta-analysis of acute lung injury and acute respiratory distress syndrome trials testing low tidal volumes. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 2002. Dec 1; 166 (11): p. 1510-4.
93. Jonson B., Richard J.C., Straus C. et al., Pressure-volume curves and compliance in acute lung injury: evidence of recruitment above the lower inflection point. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 1999. Apr; 159 (4 Pt 1): p. 1172-8.
94. Lu Q., Malbouisson L.M., Mourgeon E. et al., Assessment of PEEP-induced reopening of collapsed lung regions in acute lung injury: are one or three CT sections representative of the entire lung? Intensive Care Med, 2001. Sep; 27 (9): p. 1504-10.
95. Dreyfuss D. and Saumon G., Ventilator-induced lung injury: lessons from experimental studies. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 1998. 157 (1): p. 294-323.
96. Протокол ведения больных, диагностика и интенсивная терапия СОПЛ и ОРДС. Методические рекомендации Федерации анестезиологов-реаниматологов РФ. 2006.
97. Ventilation with lower tidal volumes as compared with traditional tidal volumes for acute lung injury and the acute respiratory distress syndrome. The Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome Network. N Engl J Med, 2000. (18): p. 1301-8.
98. Bone R.C., The ARDS lung. New insights from computed tomography. JAMA, 1993. 269 (16): p.2134-5.
99. Ward N.S., Effects of prone position ventilation in ARDS. An evidence-based review of the literature. Crit Care Clin, 2002. 18 (1): p. 35-44.
100. Stiller K., Physiotherapy in intensive care: towards an evidence-based practice. Chest, 2000. 118 (6): p. 1801-13.
101. Graham W.G. and Bradley D.A., Efficacy of chest physiotherapy and intermittent positive-pressure breathing in the resolution of pneumonia. N Engl J Med, 1978. 299 (12): p. 624-7.
102. Kirilloff L.H., Owens G.R., Rogers R.M. et al., Does chest physical therapy work? Chest, 1985. Sep; 88 (3): p. 436-44.
103. Hess D.R., The evidence for secretion clearance techniques. Respir Care, 2001. 46 (11): p.1276-93.
104. Choe K.H., Kim Y.T., Shim T.S. et al., Closing volume influences the postural effect on oxygenation in unilateral lung disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 2000. Jun; 161 (6): p. 1957-62.
105. Clini E.M., Antoni F.D., Vitacca M. et al., Intrapulmonary percussive ventilation in tracheostomized patients: a randomized controlled trial. Intensive Care Med, 2006. 32 (12): p.1994-2001.
106. Rosenthal V.D., Guzman S. and Safdar N., Reduction in nosocomial infection with improved hand hygiene in intensive care units of a tertiary care hospital in Argentina. Am J Infect Control, 2005. 33 (7): p. 392-7.
107. Мишнёв О.Д., Щёголев А.И., Патологическая анатомия ОРДС. Острый респираторный дистресссиндром / Под ред. Б.Р. Гельфанда. М.:Литтерра, 2007: 237 с.
108. Тимофеев И.В., Патология лечения. СПб.: Северо-Запад. 1999.
109. Torres A., Aznar R., Gattel J.M. et al., Incidence, risk, and prognosis factors of nosocomial pneumonia in mechanically ventilated patients. Am Rev Respir Dis, 1990. Sep; 142 (3): p.523-8.
110. Гульдяев В.Г., Структурные изменения лёгких и некоторые вопросы патогенеза лёгочных осложнений при искусственной вентиляции в послеоперационном периоде. Автореф. дис. канд. мед. наук. М., 1977.
111. Dos Santos C.C. and Slutsky A.S., Mechanotransduction, ventilator-induced lung injury and multiple organ dysfunction syndrome. Intensive Care Med, 2000. 26 (5): p. 638-42.
112. Escande B., Kuhn P., Rivera S. et al., [Secondary surfactant deficiencies.] Arch Pediatr, 2004. Nov; 11 (11): p. 1351-9.
113. Пермяков Н.К., Патология реанимации и интенсивной терапии. М.: Медицина, 1985.
114. Голубев А.М., Мороз В.В., Лысенко Д.В. и др., ИВЛ-индуцированное острое повреждение лёгких (экспериментальное, морфологическое исследование). Общая реаниматология, 2006. 4: c. 8-11.
115. Fabregas N., Torres A., El-Ebiary M. et al., Histopathologic and microbiologic aspects of ventilator-associated pneumonia. Anesthesiology, 1996. Apr; 84 (4): p. 760-71.
116. Rouby J.J., Histology and microbiology of ventilator-associated pneumonias. Semin Respir Infect, 1996. 11 (1): p. 54-61.
117. Kuhn Ch., Craighead J.E. et al., Infections of the lung. 10th ed. Anderson’s Pathology. 1996, St. Louis: MosbyInc. 1488-1498.
118. Robbins and Cotran Pathologic Basis of Disease. 2004, Ph: Elsevier.
119. Britigan B.E., Roeder T.L., Rasmussen G.T. et al., Interaction of the Pseudomonas aeruginosa secretory products pyocyanin and pyochelin generates hydroxyl radical and causes synergistic damage to endothelial cells. Implications for Pseudomonas-associated tissue injury. J Clin Invest, 1992. Dec; 90 (6): p. 2187-96.
120. Zurn L. and Schafnitzl I., [The possibility of artificial pneumococcal infection in intratracheal anesthesia.] Langenbecks Arch Klin Chir Ver Dtsch Z Chir, 1952. 271 (6): p. 540-6.
121. Matsubara O., Takumara T., Nasu M. et al., Pathological changes of the lungs after prolonged inhalation of high concentrations of oxygen. Virchows Arch A Pathol Anat Histopathol, 1986. 408 (5): p. 461-74.
122. Papazian L., Thomas P., Bregeon F. et al., Open-lung biopsy in patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome. Anesthesiology, 1998. Apr; 88 (4): p. 935-44.